re: Cycling, Too

As controversy rages over the (alleged) role of Lance Armstrong in perpetuating the dominance of performance-enhancing drugs in professional cycling, the sport is seeking to convince the public and commercial sponsors that it is becoming largely drug-free.

These efforts have been boosted by the appearance of vehemently and publicly anti-doping teams, which include Team Sky – led by Britain’s 2012 Tour de France winner, Bradley Wiggins.

In the wake of the Armstrong revelations, Sky last week announced they would oblige all staff and riders to sign a pledge saying they have never doped.

The magnitude of the doping problem in cycling was summarized by Daniel Delegove, the presiding judge of the 2000 doping trial of France’s cycling superstar Richard Virenque.

After hearing compelling evidence of widespread doping, Judge Delegove said, “These are not racers, they are pedaling test tubes.”

So, Why Do They Do It?
Most often, the goal of the user is to increase strength, or overcome fatigue.

In 1967 Jacques Anquetil, a five-time winner of the Tour de France, stated:
“For 50 years bike racers have been taking stimulants. Obviously we can do without them in a race, but then we will pedal 15 miles an hour [instead of 25]. Since we are constantly asked to go faster and to make even greater efforts, we are obliged to take stimulants.”

With the introduction of increasingly sophisticated methods of detection and testing, from the late 1980s, the performance-enhancing drug and delivery methods of choice have been blood doping, and the use of erythropoietin or EPO.

What’s Blood Doping?
Blood doping is defined by WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) as the misuse of techniques and/or substances to increases one’s red blood cell count.

Most commonly this involves the removal of two units (approximately 2 pints) of the athlete’s blood, several weeks prior to competition.

The blood is then frozen until 1-2 days before the competition, when it is thawed and injected back into the athlete.

This is known as autologous blood doping.

Homologous doping is the injection of fresh blood, removed from a second person, straight into the athlete.

A second method of blood doping involves the use of artificial oxygen carriers.

Hemoglobin oxygen carriers (HBOC’s) and Perfluorocarbons (PFC’s) are chemicals or purified proteins which have the ability to carry oxygen. Initially developed for therapeutic use, they are now being misused as performance enhancers.

Artificial Oxygen carriers are the only form of blood doping which have a medical purpose. They were developed for use in emergencies when there is no time for determining and cross-matching a patient’s blood-type for transfusion, when there is a high risk of infection, or simply when no blood is available.

Tests were introduced in 2004 which are capable of detecting the use of homologous transfusions and the presence of artificial oxygen carriers.

A sufficiently rigorous test has not yet been developed to detect autologous blood doping.

Effects on Performance
Blood doping is most commonly used by endurance athletes, such as distance runners, skiers and cyclists.

By increasing the number of red blood cells within the blood, higher volumes of the protein haemoglobin are present. Haemoglobin binds to and carries Oxygen from the lungs, to the muscles where it can be used for aerobic respiration.

Blood doping therefore allows extra Oxygen to be transported to the working muscles, resulting in a higher level of performance, without the use of the anaerobic energy systems.

Side-Effects?
The following are side-effects which can occur in any form of blood doping:

• Increased blood viscosity (thickness)
• Myocardial infarction (scarring of tissue, leading to blockage and eventual heart attack)
• Pulmonary embolism (a blockage – which can be fat, air or a blood clot – of the pulmonary artery)
• Cerebral embolism (a blockage, formed elsewhere in the body, which becomes lodged in an artery within or leading to the brain)
• Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
• Infections

Homologous transfusions are prone to further side-effects:

• Allergic reaction
• Risk of blood-borne diseases (hepatitis C, B and HIV)

After the emergence of EPO, the use of blood doping fell considerably.

However, since the development of a test for EPO detection and the lack of testing for autologous doping, it is once more on the rise.

Again, With the EPO. What IS It?
Erythropoietin (often shortened to EPO) is a naturally occurring hormone, secreted by the kidneys, whose function is to regulate red blood cell production.

The use of EPO started in the 1980’s as a quicker, cleaner alternative to blood doping.

Testing for EPO only became possible in 2000, by using both blood and urine samples. Prior to this, comparisons to a ‘normal level’ (Yeah, right. Normal, for WHOM?) were used to highlight possible offenders.

Medical Uses of Erythropoietin
EPO has a number of medical uses. It is usually employed to treat anaemia, secondary to other conditions, such as:

• Renal failure
• Cancer
• HIV
• Pre/Post-surgery to reduce the need for blood transfusion

Effects on Performance
EPO stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells (RBC) and therefore haemoglobin. For this reason EPO is most commonly used amongst endurance athletes as a higher RBC count means better oxygen transportation and so a higher rate of aerobic respiration.

The faster the rate of aerobic respiration, the higher the level at which the athlete can work without utilizing the anaerobic systems which produce lactic acid and cause fatigue.

Side-Effects of EPO?
Major ones. Which have proven to be fatal in previous cases:

• Increased viscosity (thickness) of the blood (which increases the risk of heart attack and stroke)
• Fever
• Seizures (fits)
• Nausea
• Headache
• Anxiety
• Lethargy (Weakness characterized by a lack of vitality or energy)

Great. So, Again: Why Do They Do It?
Who knows?

Why do athletes in any sport try to gain an unfair advantage?

I’ll be looking into that, in my next instalment.

Till then.

Peace.

re: Cycling

It’s been a bad time, for this sport, and no mistake.

Recent events have threatened to overshadow or eclipse the warm glow thrown over the world of cycling by this year’s heroic Tour de France victory by Britain’s Bradley Wiggins, and the keen interest regenerated in the sport by the Games of the London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.

In Case You Forgot…
Lance Armstrong – 7-time winner of the gruelling Tour de France – was stripped of his titles, on the basis of (allegedly?) ‘insurmountable evidence’ in a damning 1,000-page dossier published by the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA).

The report (allegedly?) exposes Armstrong as a serial drug cheat, at the heart of a sophisticated conspiracy involving cyclists and supporting medical staff that hid their actions from the authorities, for at least a decade.

On Wednesday last week, Armstrong was dropped by his largest corporate sponsor, American clothing and footwear company Nike, and forced to step down as chairman of Livestrong, the cancer charity he founded 15 years ago, following his own successful battle against the disease.

The company said it would, however, continue to support the Lance Armstrong Foundation (a.k.a. Livestrong) – though the cancer charity faces an uncertain future, now that its figurehead has fallen from favor.

Nike’s sponsorship of Armstrong has been reported as being worth $7.5 million a year.

Nike’s association with Armstrong dates back to 1996, and the company has a history of remaining loyal to its stars. Remember how they (initially) stuck by Tiger Woods, when he was embroiled in that sex scandal in 2009?

Problem is, Nike had recently signed a deal to supply uniforms and products to members and staff of the International Olympic Committee. Having gained such a foothold in Lausanne, the last thing Nike needed was to be tainted by association with a drug scandal.

Three other companies also announced they would no longer continue their commercial arrangements with Armstrong.

Anheuser-Busch – brewer of Budweiser – announced it would not renew its relationship with Armstrong beyond the end of 2012.

The bike manufacturer Trek revealed its long-term agreement would end with immediate effect.

Another of Armstrong’s main backers, electronics store RadioShack, also said that its relationship with the disgraced cyclist was over.

In addition, Armstrong faces the threat of legal action by American insurance company SCA – who have indicated they will attempt to reclaim a total of around $12 million in bonuses and legal fees, over sums paid to him for his Tour de France victories.

Armstrong took SCA to court in 2005, forcing it to pay up, after it initially withheld the money because of allegations that he had doped. His sworn testimony denying the claims could also leave him facing perjury charges.

Lance Armstrong has been banned from the sport for life, but continues to protest his innocence.

He appears to be running out of believers.

Collateral Damage?
The fallout from the USADA report continued on Wednesday, when Matt White, Armstrong’s former US Postal team-mate (who has confessed to doping), was sacked as a national coach by Cycling Australia.

On Friday 19 October 2012, the Dutch banking group Rabobank announced that it is to pull out of the sport, after 28 years of continuous involvement, saying it is “no longer convinced” professional cycling can be realistically viewed as clean.

Rabobank’s distinctive orange and blue jerseys will disappear from its men’s and women’s professional teams at the end of the year, though the financial support – worth more than £12m a year – will continue for a period.

The 27-strong men’s team (more than half of whom are Dutch), and the women’s squad (led by the 2012 Olympic road race champion Marianne Vos), will not be immediately broken up, but will continue to ride under the “white label” of a new foundation.

In a statement, Bert Bruggink, a member of the bank’s managing board, said: “We are no longer convinced that the international professional world of cycling can make this a clean and fair sport. We are not confident that this will change for the better in the foreseeable future.”

Should We Be Surprised, Though?
Not really.

I mean, we’ve all known it, for a while now.

That the ‘PED’ in ‘pedal’ stands for Performance-Enhancing Drugs?

That professional cycling has been rife with them, for decades?

The Rabobank announcement came the day after a Spanish Rabobank rider, Carlos Barredo, was suspended for possible doping – though there is no indication the two events are officially linked.

Levi Leipheimer – one of Lance Armstrong’s key Tour de France lieutenants who confessed to doping as part of the Usada investigation – is a former Rabobank rider.

The Usada report named another former rider for the team, Johan Bruyneel (who went on to manage Armstrong), as a key player in the doping conspiracy. Bruyneel says he will fight the charges.

In 2007 Rabobank looked set to gain their only Tour de France win through Michael Rasmussen – who led the race with four stages to go. But the Danish rider was sacked by the team as pressure built over his failure to attend a series of scheduled doping tests.

The Rabobank pullout is a significant setback for professional cycling as it seeks to emerge from the shadow of the Armstrong controversy, and convince the public and other sponsors it is becoming largely drug-free.

It’s a bit of an uphill struggle.

A Checkered History
Cycling played a central role in the explosion of stimulant use in sport after
World War Two.

Of 25 urine samples taken from riders in a 1955 race, five were positive for stimulants.

In the 1960 Rome Olympic Games, Knud Jensen, a 23-year-old Danish cyclist, collapsed during competition and died. Autopsy results revealed the presence of amphetamines in his system.

Tests conducted on Belgian cyclists in 1965 showed that 37 percent of
professionals and 23 percent of amateurs were using amphetamines, while
reports from Italy showed that 46 percent of professional cyclists tested
positive for doping.

During the thirteenth leg of the 1967 Tour de France, English cyclist Tom Simpson, 29, collapsed and died. His autopsy showed high levels of methamphetamine. A vial of the drug had reportedly been found in his pocket at the time of his death.

The impact of Simpson’s death was extensive, not least because his was the first doping death to be televized.

One year later another cyclist,Yves Mottin, died from excessive amphetamine use, two days after winning a race.

Longtime team masseur for professional cycling, Willy Voet, summarized the past forty years of doping in cycling by describing the three drug eras of the sport:

1. amphetamines in the 1960s and 1970s,

2. anabolic steroids and cortisone in the 1980s, and

3. hGH and erythropoietin (EPO).

There is strong speculation that more than a dozen deaths of elite cyclists that took place during the late 1980s were the result of using EPO.

The full extent of doping in the cycling world was exposed to public view in 1998, when Voet was arrested by French customs police for transporting performance-enhancing drugs.

Voet began detailing the use of drugs in cycling, and a large-scale investigation by both French and Italian authorities (as well as by a number of journalists) ensued.

The results of these probes implicated many of the top teams and riders in the sport as part of a highly organized, sophisticated and long-term doping regime.

Just hours before the 2000 Tour de France was to begin, three cyclists failed a mandatory EPO test and were expelled from competition.

Yeah, But, What The Heck Is EPO?

Well, visit this column next time, and I’ll tell you.

Till then.

Peace.

Paralympics A to Z: C, C; Riders

Let’s continue our rundown of sports scheduled to feature in the upcoming (6 days, now!) Paralympic Games of London 2012.

Today: Cycling (Road and Track), and Equestrian events.

My hearty thanks to the folks at

http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/sports/

the official website of the Games, for facts and figures.

Cycling Road

Cycling was originally developed as a sport for blind athletes, who first competed using tandem bicycles,which seat two riders.

Technological advances have since opened up the sport to a wider range of athletes; it is now the third largest sport on the Paralympic program.

Road Cycling was introduced as a Paralympic sport at the Stoke Mandeville/New York 1984 Paralympics.

For London 2012, the Road Race course is an 8km loop including the world-famous Brands Hatch circuit and surrounding roads.

The 32 medal events in different classifications that make up the Paralympic Road Cycling competition feature athletes with a visual impairment, cerebral palsy, amputations or other physical disabilities competing on bicycles, tricycles, tandems and hand cycles.

A tandem is used by athletes with visual impairment; the athlete sits on the back of the tandem with a sighted pilot at the front.

A hand cycle has pedals operated by hand. It has two wheels at the back and one at the front.

A tricycle – which has 3 wheels – is normally used by athletes whose balance would make them unable to race on a two-wheeled bicycle.

A bicycle is used by all other athletes, often with modifications.

Athletes are classified, according to their level of physical impairment, as follows:

B – tandem

H1-H4 – athletes use a hand cycle

T1-T2 – athletes use a tricycle

C1-C5 – athletes use a bicycle, often with modifications

The lower the athlete’s class number, the greater the impact of their impairment on their ability to compete.

Cyclists must wear protective helmets, the color of which reflects their class.

The men’s and women’s Road Race and Team events are straight finals. In each event all athletes start together, and the first athlete/team to cross the finish line is the winner.

In the Time Trials, athletes start at 60-second intervals. The one to complete the course in the fastest time is the winner.

The Team Relay events will be conducted as mass start events on a looped course. Each team will consist of three riders, with no baton or other physical contact required to enact the relays. The race will be six laps long, with each rider doing two laps.

The full competition programs will look like this:

Men’s competition

Men’s Individual H 1 Road Race
Men’s Individual H 2 Road Race
Men’s Individual H 3 Road Race
Men’s Individual H 4 Road Race
Men’s Individual C 1-3 Road Race
Men’s Individual C 4-5 Road Race
Men’s Individual B Road Race
Men’s Individual H 1 Time Trial
Men’s Individual H 2 Time Trial
Men’s Individual H 3 Time Trial
Men’s Individual H 4 Time Trial
Men’s Individual C 1 Time Trial
Men’s Individual C 2 Time Trial
Men’s Individual C 3 Time Trial
Men’s Individual C 4 Time Trial
Men’s Individual C 5 Time Trial

Women’s competition

Women’s Individual H 1-3 Road Race
Women’s Individual H 4 Road Race
Women’s Individual C 1-3 Road Race
Women’s Individual C 4-5 Road Race
Women’s Individual B Road Race
Women’s Individual H 1-2 Time Trial
Women’s Individual H 3 Time Trial
Women’s Individual H 4 Time Trial
Women’s Individual C 1-3 Time Trial
Women’s Individual C 4 Time Trial
Women’s Individual C 5 Time Trial
Women’s Individual B Time Trial

Mixed competition

T 1-2 Road Race
Mixed T 1-2 Time Trial
Mixed H 1-4 Team Relay

Cycling Track

The first Track Cycling races at the Paralympic Games took place at the Atlanta 1996 Games.

At London 2012, the program features more medal events than at any previous Paralympic Games.

The track at the Velodrome is a 250m oval, banked from 12 degrees at its shallowest point to 42 degrees at its steepest.

There are 18 Paralympic Track Cycling events (10 for men, seven for women and one mixed event) testing speed, endurance and teamwork.

For Track Cycling, only bicycles and tandems are used.

The Individual Sprint is a race between two riders at a time, over three laps of the track. The two riders start side by side, usually very slowly, before building up to a full-on sprint finish. Riders usually do not want to be in the front for the full race, which is why they may slow down and use the full width of the track.

The men’s Individual Sprint event starts with a 200m time trial to determine the draw for the 16 riders. From then on the competition is a knockout, going to quarter-finals, semi-finals and the final, which are all the best of three heats.

The Team Sprint starts with a qualifying round with the best two teams going forward to the final. The mixed Team Sprint event (classes C1-5) comprising men and women will be contested by teams of three riders. The two fastest teams in the qualifying round will race for the gold medal, and the teams with the third and fourth fastest times will race for the bronze medal.

In the Individual Pursuit, two opposing riders start on either side of the track. The winner is the rider who either catches the other, or records the fastest time over the full distance.

The men’s Pursuit is four kilometers long; the women’s event is three kilometers.

The Pursuit starts with a qualifying round, At the end of the qualification phase, the two riders with the fastest times will race for the gold medal, and the riders with the third and fourth fastest times will race for the bronze medal.

The Time Trial is a straightforward race – 1km for men, 500m for women. Athletes take to the track alone and the fastest time wins the gold medal.

The program of events for London 2012 is:

Men’s competition

Men’s Individual B Sprint
Men’s Individual C1 Pursuit
Men’s Individual B Pursuit
Men’s Individual C2 Pursuit
Men’s Individual C3 Pursuit
Men’s Individual C4 Pursuit
Men’s Individual B 1km Time Trial
Men’s Individual C1-2-3 1km Time Trial
Men’s Individual C4-5 1km Time Trial
Men’s Individual C5 Pursuit

Women’s competition

Women’s Individual B Pursuit
Women’s Individual C1-2-3 Pursuit
Women’s Individual C4 Pursuit
Women’s Individual C5 Pursuit
Women’s Individual B 1km Time Trial
Women’s Individual C1-2-3 500m Time Trial
Women’s Individual C4-5 500m Time Trial

Mixed competition

Mixed C1 to 5 Team Sprint

Equestrian

Equestrian events first appeared on the Paralympic programme at the 1984 Games held in Stoke Mandeville and New York, and have featured at every Games since Atlanta 1996.

Athletes with a disability have long taken part in Equestrian activities, originally as a means of rehabilitation and recreation.

Para-Equestrian Dressage developed in the 1970s, with the first events held in Great Britain and Scandinavia. The multi-disability sport has since spread around the world, and athletes from more than 40 countries now compete on a regular basis.

Visually impaired riders are permitted to use callers to help them navigate around the arena. Norway’s Ann Cecile Orr rode to a whistle, on her way to winning two silver medals at Sydney 2000 – she is totally blind.

Great Britain’s Lee Pearson has won nine Paralympic gold medals at three successive Games, along with six world titles. He has a remarkable 100 per cent success rate in Paralympic competition.

Grades are Ia, Ib, II, III and IV. Grade Ia is for athletes whose impairment has the greatest impact on their ability to ride, and Grade IV has the least impact.

The Dressage competition takes place in a 60m x 20m arena (Grade IV) or 40m x 20m (Grades I-III).

The system of grades ensures that the tests can be judged on the skill of the rider, regardless of their disability. Riders may use permitted assistive devices such as dressage crops and connecting rein bars. Visually impaired riders are permitted to use callers to help them navigate around the arena.

Athletes compete in three Dressage tests, where they have to perform a series of pre-determined movements which differ by grade and ability: a Team Test (with three to four riders per team), an Individual Championship Test, and a Freestyle Test, for which athletes choose their own movements and music. Through the tests, horse and rider must be in harmony, and the overall picture must be of lightness and rhythm.

Riders first complete the Team Test within their grades, followed by the Individual Championship Test, looking to get the best possible scores from the judges. After this the scores of both tests are added together to make the Team score, with the best three scores across all the grades counting.

Individual medals are also awarded for each grade on the merit of the Individual Championship Test.

After this riders undertake the Freestyle Test, competing for individual medals in each grade in this event.

A jury of five judges watches each athlete/horse combination and awards marks out of ten for the different movements that make up the routine, as well as the routine as a whole. These scores are then combined and turned into a percentage to give a final score.

The judges award marks using exacting standards, where even a slight imperfection will lose points. They are on the lookout for irregular or jerky movement, steps that are too large or too small, and riders and horses working well together.

There will be 78 competitors; men and women compete together in mixed events, as follows:

Mixed competition

Team Test – Grade Ia
Team Test – Grade Ib
Team Test – Grade II
Team Test – Grade III
Team Test – Grade IV
Individual Championship Test – Grade Ia
Individual Championship Test – Grade Ib
Individual Championship Test – Grade II
Individual Championship Test – Grade III
Individual Championship Test – Grade IV
Individual Freestyle Test – Grade Ia
Individual Freestyle Test – Grade Ib
Individual Freestyle Test – Grade II
Individual Freestyle Test – Grade III
Individual Freestyle Test – Grade IV

That’s it, for this session.

Hope to see you soon.

Peace.

An A to Z of Olympic Sports – Cool CDs

No jazz, hip hop, or classical, here. Just sports; Olympic ones.
More events given the green light to feature in the official program of London 2012:

Canoeing, Cycling, and Diving.

My thanks again to http://www.olympic.org, for background facts and figures.

Canoeing

A canoe or kayak  is a light, narrow open (canoe) or closed (kayak) boat. Its driver or paddler propels the craft forward from a kneeling position, using a single or double-bladed paddle. In strict terms, a canoe uses single-bladed and a kayak double-bladed paddles. Paddles may not be fixed to the boat, in any way.

The blade is the wide part of a paddle which passes through the water. Bent-shaft paddles have (duh) a bend in the shaft, intended to increase power, but reducing overall control.

The cockpit is the enclosed space in a kayak or slalom canoe where the paddler(s) sit.
Each paddler has a spraydeck or splashcover, which is a flexible covering fitted to the paddler’s waist that encloses the cockpit of a canoe or kayak to ensure that the boat is waterproof.

Helmets and life-jackets must be worn, as standard.

Canoe / Kayak Slalom was modeled on ski slalom – the winter ski-race down a zigzag course.
Floating obstacles are placed at various points along the water course, for the canoe and kayak events.

The slalom began in Switzerland in 1932 – with the first recorded competition taking place in 1933 – and was performed on flat water, initially. It was later switched to white water rapids.

In canoe slalom the boats are small, light, and agile, allowing for greater manoeuvrability through the rapids.

Canoe slalom made its debut at the 1972 Munich Games. Slalom racing did not appear again until the 1992 Games in Barcelona. Canoe slalom racers compete in four events, three for men and one for women, over the same course.

Canoe / Kayak Sprint features long, streamlined boats in a straight speed race – the traditional form of canoe sport.

Canoe sport competitions began in the mid-19th century. The Royal Canoe Club of London was formed in 1866 and was the first dedicated organization. In 1871 the New York Canoe Club was founded.

The first women’s competition was organized in Russia. By the 1890s, canoe sport was popular all over Europe.

In 1924 in Paris, flatwater canoeing featured at the Games as a demonstration sport.
Canoe sprints entered the Olympics as an official event in 1936, in Berlin.

Since the 1948 Games in London, women have competed in the kayak event only.

The Olympic events take place over 500 and 1,000 metres.
For the 2012 Games in London, the three men’s flatwater 500 metres events will be replaced by 200m events.

Cycling

Cycling has been popular ever since bicycles were invented in the mid-18th century. It has featured in every Olympic Games. Road cycling, however, was not on the program of the Paris 1900, St Louis 1904 or London 1908 Games.

Bicycle Motocross or BMX Cycling originated in California in the late 1960s, inspired by motocross (which uses powered motorbikes). Its principle is simple: eight riders compete on a track filled with jumps, tight bends and obstacles.

It soon became popular. They even made a movie about it, in the 1980s. (“BMX Bandits”, remember?)

In April 1981, the International BMX Federation was founded. Once it became evident that the sport had more in common with cycling than motorcycling, BMX was officially recognized in 1993 as part of the International Cycling Union (UCI).

The sport made its Olympic debut at the 2008 Beijing Games.
The men’s event was won by Latvia’s Maris Strombergs. In the women’s event, Anne-Caroline Chausson of France took the first Olympic title in this discipline.

In the 1970s, tough new bikes that relished rough terrain were developed. The bikes had fatter tires, rapid-shift gears, drum brakes and ground-breaking suspension. They gave thrill-seeking cyclists new freedom, and gave birth to a new sport: mountain biking.

The members of the Velo Club Mount Tamalpais in California generally receive the credit for establishing mountain biking as a sport. They invented the Repack Downhill race, held regularly between 1976 and 1979 in San Francisco. The races attracted riders from far and wide, and drew considerable media attention.

The first national mountain bike championships were held in 1983 in the USA. The first mountain bike World Championships, recognized by the International Cycling Union (UCI), took place in 1990.

Mountain Bike Cycling made its debut as an Olympic discipline at the Atlanta Games in 1996, with a cross-country event for men and women. The program has remained unchanged ever since.

Among the big names is Julien Absalon of France, a two-time gold-medal winner – in 2004 in Athens and in 2008 in Beijing.

Road Cycling is among the rare sports that have always featured on the Olympic program.

The first road cycling event took place in 1896 on the marathon route at the first Games of the modern era in Athens. The race started in Athens, headed towards Marathon, then returned to Athens, at the Phaliron velodrome.

Since the 1912 Games in Stockholm, the individual pursuit has been a part of each edition of the Games. The team time trial was on the program between 1912 and 1992. 1996 marked the debut of the individual time trial at the Games in Atlanta.

Olympic cycling was added to the women’s program at Los Angeles 1984, with an individual road event. Later, in 1996, the individual time trial was included in women’s Olympic cycling, as it for the men’s.

Track Cycling dates back to 1870, when track races in England were regularly attracting large crowds.

The riders competed on wooden indoor tracks that closely resembled the modern velodromes of today. Such tracks ensured the event could be competed all year round. For promoters there was an even greater benefit – spectators could be charged an entrance fee!

Track cycling was included in the inaugural Olympic Games of 1896, and has featured ever since, with the exception of the 1912 Games in Stockholm, when only the road race was staged.

Between 1924 and 1992, the range of events included sprint, time trial over one kilometer, tandem and team pursuit. The individual pursuit was added to the program of the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo, and the tandem was dropped after the 1972 Games in Munich.

Women have competed in the track events since the Seoul Games in 1988, the year that also marked the appearance of women in the sprint event. Women competed for the first time in the individual pursuit in 1992.

At the Sydney Games in 2000, several track events were introduced: 500m time trial for women, but also keirin, American and sprint for men.

Diving

Diving as a human activity has been with us ever since people, high places, and large bodies of water have coincided.

Competitive diving originated in Sweden and Germany in the 18th and 19th centuries. The sport was primarily practised by gymnasts, performing tumbling routines into the water.

In the late 19th century a group of Swedish divers visited Great Britain. They put on diving displays that proved hugely popular and led to the formation of the first diving organization, the Amateur Diving Association, in 1901.

Diving was included in the Olympics for the first time at the 1904 Games in St Louis.

For Olympic competition, the pool must be at least 5 meters deep.

The springboard is a flexible diving board that can be adjusted to create more or less spring. It must be at least 4.8 meters long and half a meter wide, with a non-slip surface.

For platform diving, the board must be at least 6 meters long and 2 meters wide, with a non-slip surface.

For synchronized diving the platform must be 3 meters wide.

The springboard and platform events have been included since the 1908 Olympic Games in London.

Women have taken part in the diving events since the Stockholm Games of 1912.

The diving program has remained much the same, since the 1928 Games in Amsterdam.
Men and women take part in 10-meter high-dive and 3-meter springboard events.

In 2000, the Sydney Games witnessed the debut of synchronized diving, on both the springboard and the platform.

For London 2012, the events list looks like this:

MEN’S EVENTS
10m platform men
3m springboard men
synchronized diving 10m platform men
synchronized diving 3m springboard men
WOMEN’S EVENTS
10m platform women
3m springboard women
synchronized diving 10m platform women
synchronized diving 3m springboard women

By the end of the 1980s, when the American Greg Louganis (who is considered the greatest diver ever) was still in competition, Chinese divers managed to achieve some notable victories. Since Louganis retired, China has dominated the men’s events. In recent years, China’s women divers have also proved themselves unbeatable.

So much for the Cool CDs.

Es are Good, so that’s what I’ll be covering, next.

Till then.

Peace.